Pontius Pilate

Pontius Pilate judging Jesus Christ

By: Anthony Lombardi

Date: January 9, 2020

Updated: August 27, 2020

Name: Marcus Pontius Pilate

Duration of life: Unknown-after 36 CE

Nationality: Roman Citizen

Trade: Roman Equestrian (knight), Procurator of Judea, 26-36 CE

Achievements/reputation: Presided the trial of Jesus Christ

Birth and Early Life

Pontius Pilate came from an important Roman family known as the Pontii and was of the equestrian social rank. Nothing is known about his early life, but he must have been raised in a wealthy background, with a good education. Unlike popular views of him, Pilate may have not had a military background, but more of a financial or administrative one, as according to Nigel Rodgers, most equestrians no longer served in the army by the 1st Century CE and were more involved in the finance sector. Several were chosen as procurators, which corresponds to Pilate's situation.

Life
Pilate was appointed by the Emperor Tiberius' Chief Minister Sejanus as the fifth procurator of Judea (part of modern-day Israel) in 26 CE. Pilate came to a land of moderate peace, where the Jews were trying to continue practicing their monotheistic religion despite the polytheism of their rulers. This was the land of origin of a huge community that was spread across the empire, as seen in the Bible. 
The Romans there, mostly soldiers and administrators, would have been generally unconcerned in matters of religion. 
It seemed like Pilate had a unique goal in mind when he came to Judea, which could be matched with the possible anti-Semitism of his boss Sejanus, as said by Joan E. Taylor. 
Whatever happened, his relationship with the Jews wound up being mediocre. Some of the archeological artifacts found connected with him give clues to the promotion of Roman polytheism and patriotism on his part, something the Jews held harsh sentiments against. He ruled from the city of Caesarea. 

The event which he is most known for is the judgment of Jesus Christ in Jerusalem, as recounted in the Bible. Captured by the Jewish religious authorities largely on account of jealousy, along with accusations of rebellion, Christ was brought to Pilate to be sentenced to death. Because he found no wrong in the accused, "Pilate tried every legal maneuver he could think of to have the case dismissed. He tried to restate the charges; he twice declared Jesus innocent; he proposed a less severe alternate sentencing [...]; he announced there was not enough evidence..." (Blosser et al. 99) as well as sending Jesus to King Herod Antipas of Galilee and proposing the release of Barabas, a prisoner. But in the end, he gave in to the Jewish leaders' urgings. He was the source of the sign on the cross of Jesus, giving the authorization to Joseph of Arimathea for the burial of Christ's body and for the consent of the guard of Christ's tomb, all recounted in the Bible.

Besides this, Pilate's term was described as one full of "...briberies,...insults,...robberies,...injuries,...executions without trial constantly repeated, the ceaseless and supreme grievous cruelty" by the Jewish writer and philosopher Philo of Alexandria (Jarus). The event that would have gotten him into the most trouble was the massacre of Samaritans on Mount Gerizim in 36, who were merely looking for ancient artifacts according to the Jewish writer Josephus. Following that incident, the Samaritans began filing complaints against Pilate. 

Death

Coincidentally, some Jews in Rome, including King Herod Agrippa, began reporting about the procurator to Emperor Caligula. By the year 37, Pilate had gotten called back to Rome to stand on trial for "cruelty and oppression" (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica). The results of the trial, if there was any, would have probably meant the end for Pilate, who committed suicide under orders of the tyrant Caligula.

Legacy

The story of Jesus Christ is incomplete without the part played by Pilate. Without his judgment, or if he would have managed to free Christ, one of the main backbone events of Western culture, history, and religion, that is the death (and resurrection) of Jesus would have been possibly prevented. 

His name is present in Christian affirmations of faith, such as the Nicene Creed. In other words, the fact that Christ was crucified under Pontius Pilate is a fundamental Christian belief. This has been held for a very long time, and legends have been seen apart from the Bible on how some believed the story went, such as that found in an ancient Egyptian Christian text mentioned by Owen Jarus for Live Science.  

Popular depictions of Christ's life and death usually include Pilate in them. Whether he is a main or minor character depends on the director. Some examples are The Robe (1953), Jesus of Nazareth (1977) and The Miracle Maker (2000).

Pilate's real behavior with regard to the Jews has been examined. Some have questioned the credibility of the Bible and other sources mentioning Pilate as justifying the Jewish opinion on the Roman conquerors in general. 

In terms of the crucifixion, they have said the same thing. The traditional Judeo-Christian interpretation, according to Warren Carter, is that Pilate was a weak and incompetent administrator, dumb enough to not understand what Jesus answers him and moved by the crowd. It is supported by Don Blosser and his team who suggest that Pilate presented himself as cautious to avoid the fate of his boss Sejanus, who was killed under orders of Tiberius sometime around the crucifixion. Rather, Carter suggests that the resistance from Pilate was a show of power. The Gospel of Matthew mentions that Pilate's wife had tried to get him off the case (27:19) which he seemed to ignore. The archeology found in relation to him, such as the road he had built, demonstrates that despite his carelessness of the Jews, he was a pretty able governor. 
Despite this, it is obvious that Pontius Pilate has become the most notorious Roman provincial governor of all time.

Sources

Books:
Blosser, Don, et al. Jesus: His Life and Times. Publications International, Ltd, Lincolnwood, 1998.

Holy Bible. New Revised Standard Version, Bible Society Resources Lmt, 2012.

Rodgers, Nigel. Ancient Rome. 2006, Annes Publishing Lmt, Wingston, 2011.

Web
Carter, Warren. "Pontius Pilate." Bible Odyssey, https://www.bibleodyssey.org/en/people/main-articles/pontius-pilate . Accessed January 9, 2020.

Jarus, Owen. "Archeologists identify 'lost' Jerusalem street built by Pontius Pilate-the man who condemned Jesus to death." Live Science, October 21, 2019, https://www.livescience.com/pontius-pilate-street-jerusalem-found.html . Accessed January 6, 2020.
--. "Shape-shifting Jesus described in Ancient Egyptian text." Live Science, March 12, 2013, https://www.livescience.com/27840-shape-shifting-jesus-ancient-text.html . Accessed January 6, 2020.
--."Who was Pontius Pilate?" Live Science, March 25, 2019, https://www.livescience.com/65064-pontius-pilate.html . Accessed January 6, 2020.

TAYLOR, JOAN E. "Pontius Pilate and the Imperial Cult in Roman Judaea." New Testament Studies, vol. 52, no. 4, 2006, pp. 555-582. ProQuest, https://proquest-crc.proxy.ccsr.qc.ca/docview/197140730?accountid=44391. Accessed January 6, 2020.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Pontius Pilate." Encyclopaedia Britannica, November 6, 2019, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pontius-Pilate . Accessed January 6, 2020.

Picture:

Christ before Pontius Pilate, mosaic. Photograph. Britannica ImageQuest, Encyclopædia Britannica, 25 May 2016. 
quest.eb.com/search/126_139433/1/126_139433/cite. Accessed 14 May 2019.

Peter the Apostle

St. Peter

By: Anthony Lombardi

Date: March 31, 2019
Updated January 9, 2019

Full name: Simon/Simeon (renamed Peter by Jesus Christ)

Duration of life: Unknown-55, 64 or 67 CE

Nationality: Roman Citizen, Galilean

Trade: Fisherman, preacher

Achievements/Reputation: Apostle of Jesus Christ, founder and first Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, Christian martyr

Birth and Early Life

Like most of the apostles of Jesus Christ, the early life of Simon Peter is shrouded in mystery. Born in Bethsaida, a town near the Sea of Galilee, Simon spent most of his early life as a fisherman and following the Jewish heritage of his countrymen, the Galileans. His father was a man named Jonas and his brother was the future apostle Andrew.

Later on, Simon and Andrew relocated to Capernaum and continued fishing with fellow future apostles James and John, sons of Zebedee. Simon was married, as evidence in the Gospel of St. Matthew proves, as well as St. Paul in his first letter to the Corinthians. Candida Moss, writing for The Daily Beast, makes reference to a 2nd Century document which may lead to conclude that Simon may have had a daughter.

Life:

Besides being a fisherman, Simon may have been a bit of an intellectual. Along with Andrew, he began following a preacher known as John the Baptist, who then directed them to following Jesus Christ, along with ten other men. 

Christ soon renamed Simon and gave him some type of authority over the apostles; "And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not prevail against it." (Matthew 15: 17-18) Daniel William O'Connor says that this authority was also recognized by the broader group of Christ's followers, as well as outsiders. Of course, Christ did not mean the institutional organization currently based in Rome, but it was a reference to the community of people around him, mostly Jews. Peter was present in many of the key moments in the life of Christ, and, because of this, was one of the closer apostles. This was a fit position for Peter, as he exercised his position very well, as he was very enthusiastic, faithful and loving with his master. However, as the New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia claims, he lacked understanding in what exactly Christ's mission was about, and who exactly Jesus was. Sure, he knew Christ was the Messiah, but was not that humble, and claimed that he would never abandon his master, which he did when Jesus was arrested. This did not break his relationship with Christ, and it continued even after his master's departure.

Everything was now up to Peter and he knew it. He preceded over several of the important decisions the apostles had to deal with as they continued what Christ had left them with: that ''...repentance and forgiveness of sins is to be proclaimed in all nations, beginning from Jerusalem." (Luke 24: 47) Even with the small community under attack from the Jews, who regarded them as a separate sect, Peter managed to keep it going, and by the time he began missionary work, it was going pretty well. He journeyed to Lydda, Joppe (Jaffa) and Caesarea, where he welcomed the first "Gentile", a Roman centurion named Cornelius, into the community. After being arrested and miraculously freed in Jerusalem, he traveled into the East, in places such as Asia Minor. He established the church in several major cities such as Antioch. He had to touch base with the community in Jerusalem to keep them updated on what was going on, and well as make sure the people of Jewish and Gentile backgrounds got along, which is why he held the Council of Jerusalem with St. Paul between 49 and 50 CE.

Death

Little is known about what actually happened to Peter following the Council of Jerusalem. However, he was certainly in Rome during the last years of his life, where he wrote his epistles: the first one: to comfort some communities in the East and the second one was a perceived accompaniment to the Epistle of Jude, according to Fr. John Laux.

Tradition says he was martyred during the persecutions of Nero by being crucified upside down, and according to the Vatican City State, buried in Caligula's Circus in 64 CE, while other sources claim 67 CE. Since then, the actual location of his remains is shrouded in mystery, although they are references in which ancient texts point to the Vatican being built on their site. According to Nicola Denzey Lewis, bones found in the middle of the 20th Century under that site may be his. However, this concept has been challenged, such as Michael D. Goulder, who claims that Peter died in 55 C.E. in Jerusalem and that the whole Rome situation was a legend.

Legacy
Due to Peter's final residence in Rome, the Primacy of the Roman Pontiff, the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church, gravitates around the Vatican City in the ancient capital. Even though Peter founded other Churches, according to Fr. Laux, none of them dared to challenge the Roman claim to the pope's seat. A letter to Christians in Corinth by St. Clement of Rome, third successor of St. Peter, confirms that. In it, he claimed divine leadership, as Peter had received the power from Jesus Christ, who Catholics believe is the son of God.

In the Roman Catholic Church, according to O'Connor, St. Peter is celebrated on five days, all associated with St. Paul. 
These feasts are: 
January 18: Chair of St. Peter (Rome) 
February 22: Chair of St. Peter (Antioch)
June 29: Feast of Sts: Peter and Paul
August 1: St. Peter in Chains
November 18: Dedications of the Basilicas of Peter and Paul

St. Peter is chiefly remembered as the apostle to the Jews, who dealt mostly with the people of Jewish origin and tradition in the new Christian community. He supported the upholding of the Jewish law among the early believers in Jerusalem, and may have moved the main seat of administration from Jerusalem to Rome, which remains the seat of his successor: the Pope.

Sources

Books
Holy Bible. New Revised Standard Version, Bible Society Resources Lmt, 2012.

Laux, Fr. John. Introduction to the Bible. 1932. TAN Books, 1990.
---. Catholic Apologetics: God, Christianity and the Church. 1934. TAN Books, 1990.

Picture
St Peter. Illustration. Britannica ImageQuest, Encyclopædia Britannica, 6 Dec 2017. 
quest.eb.com/search/108_2284593/1/108_2284593/cite. Accessed 23 Mar 2019.

Web
"First Epistle of Peter." New World Encyclopedia, April 11,  2017, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/First_Epistle_of_Peter . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

Goulder, Michael D. "Did Peter Ever Go to Rome?" Scottish Journal of Theology, vol. 57, no. 4, 2004, pp. 377-396. ProQuest, https://proquest-crc.proxy.ccsr.qc.ca/docview/222365381?accountid=44391.

"History." Vatican City State, 2007-14, http://www.vaticanstate.va/content/vaticanstate/en/monumenti/basilica-di-s-pietro/storia.paginate.1.html# . Accessed March 31, 2019.

Lewis, Nicola Denzey. "The Apostle Peter in Rome." Biblical Archeology Society, April 20, 2018, https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/people-in-the-bible/the-apostle-peter-in-rome/ . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

Lombardi, Anthony. "Andrew the Apostle." Interistory, March 31, 2019, https://interistory.blogspot.com/search?q=Andrew+the+Apostle . Accessed March 31, 2019.

Moss, Candida. "The Greatest Myths about the Apostles." The Daily Beast, May 07, 2017. ProQuest, https://proquest-crc.proxy.ccsr.qc.ca/docview/1895751974?accountid=44391.

O'Connor, Daniel William. "Saint Peter the Apostle." Encyclopaedia Britannica, February 27, 2019, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Peter-the-Apostle . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

"Peter: 1st Pope of the Catholic Church." The Holy See, http://w2.vatican.va/content/vatican/en/holy-father/san-pietro.html . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

"Saint Feast Days in August." Catholic Online, https://www.catholic.org/saints/f_day/aug.php . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

"St. Peter, Prince of the Apostles." New Advent: Catholic Encyclopedia, 2017, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11744a.htm . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

Andrew the Apostle

Andrew the Apostle

By: Anthony Lombardi

Date: January 8, 2019
Updated January 9, 2020

Full name: Andrew, son of Jonas

Duration of life: d. November 30, 60 CE

Nationality: Roman citizen, Galilean

Trade: Fisherman, preacher

Achievement/Reputation: Apostle of Jesus Christ, Christian martyr, founder of the Church of Constantinople

Birth and Early Life
The early life of Andrew is shrouded in mystery. It is mostly based off verses in the Bible. He was born in Bethsaida, a town on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee, near the eastern limit of the Roman Empire, currently just as mysterious as the person of Andrew. He was the son of a certain Jonas and the brother of Simon, the future apostle Peter. 

There are some verses that hint that Andrew may have been educated in Greek even though the common language of that area was Aramaic.  The name Andrew is also of Hellenic origin. Greek was at the time one of the main languages of the Roman Empire and was very present in everyday life. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, this name was common among the Jewish community at the time. 

The two brothers worked in the fishing industry until Jesus Christ came to them. They must have moved eventually to Capharnaum since the Gospel according to Mark bases them there.

Life
In time, Andrew started following the preacher known as John the Baptist. It was through this that he soon became acquainted with Jesus Christ and followed him since the preacher claimed that Christ was the Messiah. John the Evangelist claims that he was the first called of Christ's twelve apostles. His brother Simon also joined the apostles. This totally changed their lives and they abandoned their lifestyles based on fishing and began following Christ wherever he went. 

Andrew played a big part in some of the key moments of Christ's life, such as the multiplication of the loaves in Galilee. He was among the four apostles who demanded a sign of the fall of the Temple of Jerusalem, which Christ had predicted. Another part where he is mentioned is also in Jerusalem when he served as an interpreter between a group of Greeks and Christ, also mentioned in the Gospel of John.

Following the departure of Christ according to the Bible, Andrew's life goes back into mystery. He is not mentioned in any of the other books of the Bible following the Gospels. However, Christian traditions claims he ventured west of his native land, where he preached in "...Bithynia...the Black Sea, the Propontis, Halcedon, Byzantium, Thrace, Macedonia, and the places until Istro, to Thessaly, mainland Greece, and the Peloponnese; also, to Aminsos, Trapzoun, Heraklia, and Amastris." (The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople) The trip was not always easy and he was persecuted in several places.

It is almost certain that Andrew would have encountered some of his fellow apostles as a few of them circulated in that same area. That could explain why John the Evangelist may have emphasized on Andrew's knowledge of Greek, since John wrote his Gospel in Ephesus.  

The Patriarchate also claims that Andrew ordained Stachys as the first Bishop of Byzantium, thus making him the founder of the Church of Constantinople.

Death
In Patras or Patrae, according to tradition, Andrew encountered trouble. He stayed in the house of Sosias and cured him, converting the whole city. Among other people he cured there, were Maximilla and Stratocles, respectively the wife and brother of the Roman governor Aigeas. The latter, upset with the conversion, had him crucified on November 30, in the year 60. 

Andrew insisted that his cross would be in an X shape. That is how he passed away. The Passion of Andrew, a 6th century story, is of this subject and on his last words. The fact that he died for his faith may have qualified him for sainthood in the Christian Church.

Legacy
In both the Roman and Greek Catholic Churches, Saint Andrew is remembered on the day of his death, November 30th. The Church he founded in Constantinople would technically go hand-in-hand with that of his brother Peter in Rome until they would separate in the Schism of 1054 due to political friction between Constantinople and Rome. 

His relics were moved from Patras to Constantinople in 357 under order of the Roman emperor Constantius II. Following the capture of Constantinople by the French during the Crusades in 1208, Cardinal Peter of Capua had them transferred to Amafili, Italy. While most of them remain there, the head of Andrew was moved to Rome in the 15th Century, and returned to Patras by Pope Paul VI in 1964 as a good act towards the broken off Greek Christians whom he tried to reconcile with.

Andrew is remembered as the Apostle of the Greeks. He is also the patron saint of Scotland, as the X cross seen on the flag may be identified by some as the cross of Andrew. He is also one of the patron saints of Russia.

Sources

Books
Holy Bible. New Revised Standard Version, Bible Society Resources Lmt, 2012.

Jésus et son temps. Translated by Anne Manago and Vincent Morris, The Reader's Digest Association, Pleasantville, 1987.

Laux, Fr. John. Introduction to the Bible. 1932. TAN Books, 1990. 

Picture
St Andrew the Apostle Created by Master of Saint Francis. Fine Art. Britannica ImageQuest, Encyclopædia Britannica, 25 May 2016. 
quest.eb.com/search/135_1588677/1/135_1588677/cite. Accessed 6 Jan 2019.

Web
"Andrew the Apostle, founder of the Church of Constantinople." The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130925042820/http://www.patriarchate.org:80/patriarchate/former-patriarchs/andrew-apostle. Accessed January 8, 2019.

Benedict XVI.  "Andrew, the Protoclete." The Holy See, 2006. http://w2.vatican.va/content/vatican/en.html. Accessed January 8, 2019.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Accessed January 8, 2019.

MacRory, Joseph. "St. Andrew." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 8 Jan. 2019<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01471a.htm>. 

Pfister, Samuel. "Where is Biblical Bethsaida?" Bible History Daily, October 20, 2018. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-sites-places/biblical-archaeology-sites/where-is-biblical-bethsaida/. Accessed January 8, 2019.