Peter the Apostle

St. Peter

By: Anthony Lombardi

Date: March 31, 2019
Updated January 9, 2019

Full name: Simon/Simeon (renamed Peter by Jesus Christ)

Duration of life: Unknown-55, 64 or 67 CE

Nationality: Roman Citizen, Galilean

Trade: Fisherman, preacher

Achievements/Reputation: Apostle of Jesus Christ, founder and first Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, Christian martyr

Birth and Early Life

Like most of the apostles of Jesus Christ, the early life of Simon Peter is shrouded in mystery. Born in Bethsaida, a town near the Sea of Galilee, Simon spent most of his early life as a fisherman and following the Jewish heritage of his countrymen, the Galileans. His father was a man named Jonas and his brother was the future apostle Andrew.

Later on, Simon and Andrew relocated to Capernaum and continued fishing with fellow future apostles James and John, sons of Zebedee. Simon was married, as evidence in the Gospel of St. Matthew proves, as well as St. Paul in his first letter to the Corinthians. Candida Moss, writing for The Daily Beast, makes reference to a 2nd Century document which may lead to conclude that Simon may have had a daughter.

Life:

Besides being a fisherman, Simon may have been a bit of an intellectual. Along with Andrew, he began following a preacher known as John the Baptist, who then directed them to following Jesus Christ, along with ten other men. 

Christ soon renamed Simon and gave him some type of authority over the apostles; "And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not prevail against it." (Matthew 15: 17-18) Daniel William O'Connor says that this authority was also recognized by the broader group of Christ's followers, as well as outsiders. Of course, Christ did not mean the institutional organization currently based in Rome, but it was a reference to the community of people around him, mostly Jews. Peter was present in many of the key moments in the life of Christ, and, because of this, was one of the closer apostles. This was a fit position for Peter, as he exercised his position very well, as he was very enthusiastic, faithful and loving with his master. However, as the New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia claims, he lacked understanding in what exactly Christ's mission was about, and who exactly Jesus was. Sure, he knew Christ was the Messiah, but was not that humble, and claimed that he would never abandon his master, which he did when Jesus was arrested. This did not break his relationship with Christ, and it continued even after his master's departure.

Everything was now up to Peter and he knew it. He preceded over several of the important decisions the apostles had to deal with as they continued what Christ had left them with: that ''...repentance and forgiveness of sins is to be proclaimed in all nations, beginning from Jerusalem." (Luke 24: 47) Even with the small community under attack from the Jews, who regarded them as a separate sect, Peter managed to keep it going, and by the time he began missionary work, it was going pretty well. He journeyed to Lydda, Joppe (Jaffa) and Caesarea, where he welcomed the first "Gentile", a Roman centurion named Cornelius, into the community. After being arrested and miraculously freed in Jerusalem, he traveled into the East, in places such as Asia Minor. He established the church in several major cities such as Antioch. He had to touch base with the community in Jerusalem to keep them updated on what was going on, and well as make sure the people of Jewish and Gentile backgrounds got along, which is why he held the Council of Jerusalem with St. Paul between 49 and 50 CE.

Death

Little is known about what actually happened to Peter following the Council of Jerusalem. However, he was certainly in Rome during the last years of his life, where he wrote his epistles: the first one: to comfort some communities in the East and the second one was a perceived accompaniment to the Epistle of Jude, according to Fr. John Laux.

Tradition says he was martyred during the persecutions of Nero by being crucified upside down, and according to the Vatican City State, buried in Caligula's Circus in 64 CE, while other sources claim 67 CE. Since then, the actual location of his remains is shrouded in mystery, although they are references in which ancient texts point to the Vatican being built on their site. According to Nicola Denzey Lewis, bones found in the middle of the 20th Century under that site may be his. However, this concept has been challenged, such as Michael D. Goulder, who claims that Peter died in 55 C.E. in Jerusalem and that the whole Rome situation was a legend.

Legacy
Due to Peter's final residence in Rome, the Primacy of the Roman Pontiff, the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church, gravitates around the Vatican City in the ancient capital. Even though Peter founded other Churches, according to Fr. Laux, none of them dared to challenge the Roman claim to the pope's seat. A letter to Christians in Corinth by St. Clement of Rome, third successor of St. Peter, confirms that. In it, he claimed divine leadership, as Peter had received the power from Jesus Christ, who Catholics believe is the son of God.

In the Roman Catholic Church, according to O'Connor, St. Peter is celebrated on five days, all associated with St. Paul. 
These feasts are: 
January 18: Chair of St. Peter (Rome) 
February 22: Chair of St. Peter (Antioch)
June 29: Feast of Sts: Peter and Paul
August 1: St. Peter in Chains
November 18: Dedications of the Basilicas of Peter and Paul

St. Peter is chiefly remembered as the apostle to the Jews, who dealt mostly with the people of Jewish origin and tradition in the new Christian community. He supported the upholding of the Jewish law among the early believers in Jerusalem, and may have moved the main seat of administration from Jerusalem to Rome, which remains the seat of his successor: the Pope.

Sources

Books
Holy Bible. New Revised Standard Version, Bible Society Resources Lmt, 2012.

Laux, Fr. John. Introduction to the Bible. 1932. TAN Books, 1990.
---. Catholic Apologetics: God, Christianity and the Church. 1934. TAN Books, 1990.

Picture
St Peter. Illustration. Britannica ImageQuest, Encyclopædia Britannica, 6 Dec 2017. 
quest.eb.com/search/108_2284593/1/108_2284593/cite. Accessed 23 Mar 2019.

Web
"First Epistle of Peter." New World Encyclopedia, April 11,  2017, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/First_Epistle_of_Peter . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

Goulder, Michael D. "Did Peter Ever Go to Rome?" Scottish Journal of Theology, vol. 57, no. 4, 2004, pp. 377-396. ProQuest, https://proquest-crc.proxy.ccsr.qc.ca/docview/222365381?accountid=44391.

"History." Vatican City State, 2007-14, http://www.vaticanstate.va/content/vaticanstate/en/monumenti/basilica-di-s-pietro/storia.paginate.1.html# . Accessed March 31, 2019.

Lewis, Nicola Denzey. "The Apostle Peter in Rome." Biblical Archeology Society, April 20, 2018, https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/people-in-the-bible/the-apostle-peter-in-rome/ . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

Lombardi, Anthony. "Andrew the Apostle." Interistory, March 31, 2019, https://interistory.blogspot.com/search?q=Andrew+the+Apostle . Accessed March 31, 2019.

Moss, Candida. "The Greatest Myths about the Apostles." The Daily Beast, May 07, 2017. ProQuest, https://proquest-crc.proxy.ccsr.qc.ca/docview/1895751974?accountid=44391.

O'Connor, Daniel William. "Saint Peter the Apostle." Encyclopaedia Britannica, February 27, 2019, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Peter-the-Apostle . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

"Peter: 1st Pope of the Catholic Church." The Holy See, http://w2.vatican.va/content/vatican/en/holy-father/san-pietro.html . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

"Saint Feast Days in August." Catholic Online, https://www.catholic.org/saints/f_day/aug.php . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

"St. Peter, Prince of the Apostles." New Advent: Catholic Encyclopedia, 2017, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11744a.htm . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

John By

                                     
                    Lieutenant-Colonel John By supervising the 
                    construction of the Rideau Canal 


By: Anthony Lombardi
Date: March 4th, 2019
Updated January 9, 2020


Full name: John By

Duration of life: 1779/83-February 1st, 1836

Nationality: British

Trade: Second lieutenant, lieutenant, second captain, first captain Brevet major, lieutenant colonel, member of the Royal Artillery, Royal Engineers and the Board of Ordinance.

Achievements/Reputation: undertook major fortification and engineering projects in Britain and Canada. Founder of Canada's future capital: Ottawa.

Birth and Early Life
The birth date of this important character in Canadian history is disputed. John By was born anywhere between 1779 and 1783 in Lambeth, England. He attended the Royal Military Academy in Woolwich, graduating from there on August 1, 1799.

Life
By married Elizabeth Johnson Baines in 1801. After serving in Woolwich and Plymouth, he was stationed for the first time in Canada in 1802. He worked on the small locks on the St. Lawrence River and on the fortifications of Quebec City. He did well, and was promoted as second captain. 

Later on, he was called to serve in Portugal in 1811 in the Peninsular War, and returned to England in 1812, where he was appointed Brevet Major. There, he accomplished some more engineering feats: he designed and had built an arms factory in London in 1814. Unfortunately, his wife also died that year, without having any children. By did not wait too long, and was married again in 1818 to Esther March, who bore at least two daughters. In 1821, By retired and stayed in London, being appointed Lieutenant-Colonel in 1824. 

The main feat of By's life was yet to be accomplished. In order to strengthen the border between Canada and the hostile United States, he was appointed Commanding Engineer of the Rideau Canal project, probably due to his experience in engineering and the fact that he had worked in Canada previously. This was in 1826, so retirement did not last very long. 

As he constructed the canal, a small community was being created for the workers in the project. It was called Bytown, and it was from here that all the affairs for the canal were conducted. According to John H. Taylor, By himself was in charge of the town and also owned some land south of the settlement that he purchased for 1,200 GBP (2,110.42 CAD), which was undeveloped for many years.

During the construction of the canal, By encountered many problems, including certain costs for the construction, contract extensions, and clashes with other people on the Board of Ordinance, his army colleagues also involved in engineering. The circulation of information was not easy, as orders took a while to arrive from London to the construction site. Furthermore, as of 1830, the Parliament was reluctant to his project and his reputation was getting worst. However, the canal was done and By traveled on it in 1832. According to Ken W. Watson, By spent approximately 803,774 GBP (1,413,701.39 CAD).

Unfortunately, at around the same time, By was called back to England on accusations of overspending, according to Robert F. Legget. It was there that his military career ended, and he never got a public hearing with the Parliament. He tried getting his name cleared in public and even demand recognition for having achieved a very big colonial engineering project, in vain.

Death
By suffered a stroke in October 1834, but underwent a more severe one two years later. On February 1st, 1836, John By passed away in Frant, England, without any public recognition. 

Legacy
Unfortunately, By's name and memory quickly disappeared in England as he had no one else to continue fighting for his name. His last surviving descendants, his granddaughters, died when they were still young.

However, the Rideau Canal did come in handy for military reasons, such as the 1838 Battle of the Windmill. And, in 1855, the name of the small town he founded was changed to Ottawa. Little would By have known that his Bytown (without the name obviously) would become the capital of the Dominion of Canada in 1887. It remains Canada's capital. 

Watson notes that it wasn't until the 20th Century that prominent historians such as Legget began examining John By's image, and made him a celebrated figure of Canadian history. Research has concluded that the accusations of overspending were technically wrong, and did not go against Parliament orders.   


Sources

Book
Taylor, John H. Ottawa: An Illustrated History. James Lorimier & Company Publishers and the Canadian Museum of Civilization, Toronto, 1986.

Picture
Jeffreys [sic], C.W. Heritage Ottawa, https://heritageottawa.org/colonel-day . Accessed March 4th, 2019.

Web
Legget, Robert F. "By, John." Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 7, University of Toronto and Université Laval, 1988, http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/by_john_7E.html . Accessed March 4th, 2019

Legget, Robert F. "John By." The Canadian Encyclopedia, June 12, 2008, edited March 4th, 2015, https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/john-by . Accessed March 4th, 2019. 

Watson, Ken W. "Bye By." Rideau Canal World Heritage Site, http://www.rideau-info.com/canal/tales/bye-by.html . Accessed March 4th, 2019.

Xe Currency Converter. https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/ . Accessed March 4th, 2019. 

Andrew the Apostle

Andrew the Apostle

By: Anthony Lombardi

Date: January 8, 2019
Updated January 9, 2020

Full name: Andrew, son of Jonas

Duration of life: d. November 30, 60 CE

Nationality: Roman citizen, Galilean

Trade: Fisherman, preacher

Achievement/Reputation: Apostle of Jesus Christ, Christian martyr, founder of the Church of Constantinople

Birth and Early Life
The early life of Andrew is shrouded in mystery. It is mostly based off verses in the Bible. He was born in Bethsaida, a town on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee, near the eastern limit of the Roman Empire, currently just as mysterious as the person of Andrew. He was the son of a certain Jonas and the brother of Simon, the future apostle Peter. 

There are some verses that hint that Andrew may have been educated in Greek even though the common language of that area was Aramaic.  The name Andrew is also of Hellenic origin. Greek was at the time one of the main languages of the Roman Empire and was very present in everyday life. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, this name was common among the Jewish community at the time. 

The two brothers worked in the fishing industry until Jesus Christ came to them. They must have moved eventually to Capharnaum since the Gospel according to Mark bases them there.

Life
In time, Andrew started following the preacher known as John the Baptist. It was through this that he soon became acquainted with Jesus Christ and followed him since the preacher claimed that Christ was the Messiah. John the Evangelist claims that he was the first called of Christ's twelve apostles. His brother Simon also joined the apostles. This totally changed their lives and they abandoned their lifestyles based on fishing and began following Christ wherever he went. 

Andrew played a big part in some of the key moments of Christ's life, such as the multiplication of the loaves in Galilee. He was among the four apostles who demanded a sign of the fall of the Temple of Jerusalem, which Christ had predicted. Another part where he is mentioned is also in Jerusalem when he served as an interpreter between a group of Greeks and Christ, also mentioned in the Gospel of John.

Following the departure of Christ according to the Bible, Andrew's life goes back into mystery. He is not mentioned in any of the other books of the Bible following the Gospels. However, Christian traditions claims he ventured west of his native land, where he preached in "...Bithynia...the Black Sea, the Propontis, Halcedon, Byzantium, Thrace, Macedonia, and the places until Istro, to Thessaly, mainland Greece, and the Peloponnese; also, to Aminsos, Trapzoun, Heraklia, and Amastris." (The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople) The trip was not always easy and he was persecuted in several places.

It is almost certain that Andrew would have encountered some of his fellow apostles as a few of them circulated in that same area. That could explain why John the Evangelist may have emphasized on Andrew's knowledge of Greek, since John wrote his Gospel in Ephesus.  

The Patriarchate also claims that Andrew ordained Stachys as the first Bishop of Byzantium, thus making him the founder of the Church of Constantinople.

Death
In Patras or Patrae, according to tradition, Andrew encountered trouble. He stayed in the house of Sosias and cured him, converting the whole city. Among other people he cured there, were Maximilla and Stratocles, respectively the wife and brother of the Roman governor Aigeas. The latter, upset with the conversion, had him crucified on November 30, in the year 60. 

Andrew insisted that his cross would be in an X shape. That is how he passed away. The Passion of Andrew, a 6th century story, is of this subject and on his last words. The fact that he died for his faith may have qualified him for sainthood in the Christian Church.

Legacy
In both the Roman and Greek Catholic Churches, Saint Andrew is remembered on the day of his death, November 30th. The Church he founded in Constantinople would technically go hand-in-hand with that of his brother Peter in Rome until they would separate in the Schism of 1054 due to political friction between Constantinople and Rome. 

His relics were moved from Patras to Constantinople in 357 under order of the Roman emperor Constantius II. Following the capture of Constantinople by the French during the Crusades in 1208, Cardinal Peter of Capua had them transferred to Amafili, Italy. While most of them remain there, the head of Andrew was moved to Rome in the 15th Century, and returned to Patras by Pope Paul VI in 1964 as a good act towards the broken off Greek Christians whom he tried to reconcile with.

Andrew is remembered as the Apostle of the Greeks. He is also the patron saint of Scotland, as the X cross seen on the flag may be identified by some as the cross of Andrew. He is also one of the patron saints of Russia.

Sources

Books
Holy Bible. New Revised Standard Version, Bible Society Resources Lmt, 2012.

Jésus et son temps. Translated by Anne Manago and Vincent Morris, The Reader's Digest Association, Pleasantville, 1987.

Laux, Fr. John. Introduction to the Bible. 1932. TAN Books, 1990. 

Picture
St Andrew the Apostle Created by Master of Saint Francis. Fine Art. Britannica ImageQuest, Encyclopædia Britannica, 25 May 2016. 
quest.eb.com/search/135_1588677/1/135_1588677/cite. Accessed 6 Jan 2019.

Web
"Andrew the Apostle, founder of the Church of Constantinople." The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130925042820/http://www.patriarchate.org:80/patriarchate/former-patriarchs/andrew-apostle. Accessed January 8, 2019.

Benedict XVI.  "Andrew, the Protoclete." The Holy See, 2006. http://w2.vatican.va/content/vatican/en.html. Accessed January 8, 2019.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Accessed January 8, 2019.

MacRory, Joseph. "St. Andrew." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 8 Jan. 2019<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01471a.htm>. 

Pfister, Samuel. "Where is Biblical Bethsaida?" Bible History Daily, October 20, 2018. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-sites-places/biblical-archaeology-sites/where-is-biblical-bethsaida/. Accessed January 8, 2019.

Jeanne Mance

Jeanne Mance

By: Anthony Lombardi

Date: January 8, 2019
Updated August 27, 2020

Full Name: Jeanne Mance

Duration of life: 1606-January 18, 1673

Nationality: French

Trade: Nurse, Catholic Missionary

Achievement/Reputation: Co-founder of the city of Montreal, founder of Hôtel Dieu hospital (1645-2017)

Birth and Childhood
Jeanne Mance was born in 1606 in France. The earliest known date of her life is her baptism in Langres, Haute-Marne, France on November 12, 1606. She was the second child in her family of 11, made of of 6 boys and 6 girls. As a young girl, Jeanne was educated by the Ursulines of Langres, and may have been one of the first students admitted to the school since the nuns had installed themselves there in 1613. 

Life

In her early 20s, Jeanne's mother Catherine Émonnot passed away. Jeanne, with the help of one of her sisters, overlooked the education of her siblings. She also began her medical career by taking care of victims of the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). Not drawn to a life of marriage, this young woman looked for spiritual fulfillment as a devout Catholic laywoman.

An answer to her prayers was soon to come. In April 1640, she learned of the missions of New France from a cousin, Fr. Nicholas Dolebeau, chaplain of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, whose own brother Jean was a missionary there. She desired to join them there. Following a meeting in Paris with the Jesuit priest who was in charge of the New France missions, Fr. Charles Lalemant, her mission was clear: she was going to the colonies across the sea.

In May 1640, Jeanne Mance left Langres for Paris, where she was presented to Mme. Angélique Faure de Bulion, a rich widow and donor, who commissioned her to build a hospital in New France. Following that, she joined the Notre-Dame society of Montreal upon invitation from Jérôme Le Royer de la Dauversière in April 1641. The goal of this society was to install a missionary colony on the island of Montreal, which they owned, where Amerindians and Frenchmen would live in harmony. Obviously, Mance's project would have gone well with it. Jeanne was about to join Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve, governor of the new colony, along with 48 other people, on three ships: the Gaston and the Renée left from La Rochelle. These were the ships that Jeanne, Maisonneuve and the majority of their companions embarked. Some people embarked on a third ship in Dieppe. Their destination was Quebec City. Jeanne left France on May 9, 1641. 

She landed in Quebec on August 8th, and the colonists wintered there. On May 8th, 1642, the party left Quebec and arrived on Montreal island on May 17th. The mission, named Ville-Marie, was soon started and Jeanne Mance operated her own small hospital until the official one was opened in 1645. It was called Hôtel Dieu. She was also the new colony's official treasurer and director of supplies, taking care of cases inside the mission. The hospital especially was very important as the colony was subject to Iroquois attacks due to its geographical location.

Between 1649 and 1664, Jeanne had to return to France at least three times. The first time was in 1649 when M. de la Dauversière was ill, and the Notre-Dame society was falling apart. When she left France a year later, all problems had been resolved, de la Dauversière was fine and the society was up and running again. Her second trip in 1658-1659 resulted in her return with three Hospitaliers of Saint-Joseph nuns chosen by M. de la Dauversière, as well as other laywomen and nuns, including Marguerite Bourgeoys, future founder of the Notre-Dame Congregation of Montreal. Her last time in France in 1662-1664 was spent supervising the passing of the ownership of the island of Montreal by the disintegrating Notre-Dame society to the Saint-Sulpice Seminary of Paris. 

Death

On January 28, 1657, Jeanne fell on ice while returning from mass and broke her arm, dislocating her wrist at the same time. She did not receive good treatment and was left with a handicapped wrist. However, her arm did heal on her second trip to France, when she received a relic of the recent deceased Fr. Jean-Jacques Olier, a priest part of the Notre-Dame society who had recently passed away. For a while, everyone thought she would be no longer able to run the hospital, but she miraculously continued.

Jeanne Mance carried on with the management of Hôtel Dieu until January 1673. She died peacefully on June 18th, 1673 towards the age of 67.

Legacy

Ultimately, Ville-Marie did not become the missionary resort that the Notre-Dame society and Jeanne Mance wished it to be. Its geographical location promoted it to become a great city. Now known as Montreal, this city is now the second biggest populated city in Canada.

But Montrealers should never forget where their roots come from, as diverse as the city is. If it would not be for Jeanne Mance's holiness and the Catholic piety of the people who accompanied her, this city would probably not be standing today, or would be much different. This webpage would not even be written. That is why Jeanne Mance has been recognized since 2012 as co-founder of Montreal with Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve. Her dedication to her duty in the future city was very fascinating. Not even a paralyzed wrist could stop her.

Hôtel Dieu, the hospital founded by Jeanne Mance, has no longer been in operation since 2017. It has moved several times from its original location on Saint-Paul St. in Old Montreal. Its last location was built between 1856 and 1861, with wings added over the years a little more north in the city, on St. Urbain St, in the Plateau Mont-Royal borough. According to the Montreal Gazette, in its history "The hospital... had scored a number of medical firsts over the years, including the world’s first removal of a kidney in 1868." 

The legacy of Jeanne Mance lives on with the city, although much as Montreal's original history may be forgotten in time and her hospital closed. One of the wishes she shared with her companions was having a colony where Natives and Europeans would live side by side in peace. Even though that is not totally reality, the city has a diverse population that live pretty much in peace together. Hopefully, this peace will continue not only in this city, but in the country that Jeanne Mance contributed to: Canada.

Sources

Book

Fournier, Marcel. Les Premiers Montréalistes 1642-1643: Les origines de Montréal. Montréal, Société de recherche historique Archiv-Histo Inc, 2013.

Picture

JEANNE MANCE (1606-1673). - French philanthropist in Canada. Painting by an unknown artist. Fine Art. Britannica ImageQuest, Encyclopædia Britannica, 25 May 2016.
quest.eb.com/search/140_1687115/1/140_1687115/cite. Accessed 23 Jul 2018.

Web

Connelly, John. "Canada's Top 10 Most Populous Cities." Business Chief Canada, April 13, 2011. https://canada.businesschief.com/top10/1003/Canadas-Top-10-Most-Populous-Cities. Accessed July 4, 2018.

Derfel, Aaron. "Patients to move from Hôtel Dieu hospital to Nouveau CHUM on Sunday." Montreal Gazette, November 3, 2017. http://montrealgazette.com/news/local-news/patients-to-move-from-hotel-dieu-hospital-to-nouveau-chum-on-sunday.  Accessed July 4, 2018.

Daveluy, Marie-Claire. "Mance, Jeanne.'' Dictionary of Canadian Bibliography, 1966. http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/mance_jeanne_1E.html. Accessed July 23, 2018.

"Hôtel-Dieu de Montréal." Le site officiel du Mont-Royal. http://ville.montreal.qc.ca/siteofficieldumontroyal/. Accessed July 4, 2018. 

"Hôtel-Dieu Hospital." Héritage Montreal. http://www.heritagemontreal.org/en/site/hotel-dieu-hospital/. Accessed July 4, 2018.

''Jeanne Mance, co-founder of Montreal.'' Pointe-A-Callière. https://pacmusee.qc.ca/en/stories-of-montreal/article/jeanne-mance-co-founder-of-montreal/. Accessed July 23, 2018. 

Noel, Jan. "Jeanne Mance." The Canadian Encyclopedia, February 27, 2008. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/jeanne-mance/. Accessed July 23, 2018.

Henry Hudson

Henry Hudson

By: Anthony Lombardi

Date: January 8, 2019
Updated January 9, 2020

Full Name: Henry Hudson

Duration of life: ca. 1565-ca.1611

Nationality: British (employee of Dutch East India Company in 1609)

Trade: Captain, navigator

Achievements: Discovered the Hudson River (United States of America), Hudson Bay (Canada) and attempted a search for a northwest passage to Asia. Indirect founding father of the Hudson's Bay Company (modern day Hudson's Bay).

Birth and Early Life

Little is known on the early life of Henry Hudson. He was born around 1565 in England, and lived for some time in London. He must have had a good education as he was literate, and knew mathematics. The fact that he chose a navigator's life was not surprising as his grandfather had been involved in the Muscovy Company, an English trade organization who focused on commerce with Russia. About his marriage and family "...Henry married a woman named Katherine and they had three sons-Oliver, John and Richard. His son, John, would accompany him on all four of his voyages." (The Mariners' Museum and Park)

Hudson may have started his sailing career young as a cabin boy, where he learnt a lot about life in a ship and how to man it. 

Before taking his own ill-fated voyages, Hudson may have been present on another mission with another important explorer: John Davis (c.1550-1605), in 1587. On this voyage, they searched for a Northwestern passage from North America to Asia in the Arctic Ocean, something that numerous people since Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) had tried doing in hopes of making trade with the Asian nations better. 

Life
In 1607, the Muscovy Company, of course looking for one of these passages to China, hired Henry Hudson to find it for them. The fact that he may have been present on the Davis trip may have triggered high expectations from the company for him. 

His first voyage, probably his main one, started when he left from Gravesend, England in April of that year on the ship Hopewell. He was supposed to sail across the Arctic Circle to China. On this trip, Hudson was not able to totally accomplish his goal as the ice packs of the Arctic stopped him, and he had problems with his crew of 10 men. However, the positive that came out of this was the that he explored the Arctic and managed to report back in July that there was some sort of passage there. He also observed the wildlife of the area, and interested the company with the whales he saw. The company apparently then wanted to use this opportunity for whaling, which was important back then, but Hudson preferred going a second time the next year to look for the passage.

This time, Hudson did something different. Leaving England with the same ship, and a crew of 14 men, he went Northeast, towards Northern Russia. He recorded the wildlife, but here his relationship with the crew was mediocre as well and he failed to find his passage. Upon his return, the Muscovy Company had grown impatient with him and no longer supported him. 

Because of his level of expertise, Hudson had become a valuable navigator. The Dutch East India Company was willing to help him, and commissioned him to continue going after his Northeastern passage. So he embarked on the Half Moon and left Amsterdam on April 6, 1609. With him was a mixed Dutch and English crew, some of these already acquainted with their captain from previous trips. He followed the same trail of his second trip for the Muscovy Company, and again was blocked by ice when the crew mutinied, which must have not been a big a big surprise for him. Ignoring the orders from the Dutch, Hudson then desperately crossed the Atlantic and tried discovering a passage there. While doing this, he went through parts currently in Canada and the United States, and sailed down the river that bears his name, which may have opened up trading possibilities in the future New England. However, this area was generally already known and under British domination. He did not find his passage, and docked at Dartmouth, England on November 7 where he was ordered by the Pliny Council to not return to the Netherlands, forcing him to leave his job for the Dutch incomplete.

Even if it had been a failure, the British hopes in finding a passage to China revived with Hudson's choice of North America as a point of discovery. His popularity rose in Europe and he was commissioned by the British East India Company to search for a Northwestern passage by here in 1609. Hudson was set to leave London on April 17, 1610. 

Leaving with him on this mission aboard the Discovery was a larger crew, and less acquainted with him, although there were a few who had been with him before, including one named Robert Juet, who had kept a journal of the Half Moon trip still legible today. A lot more is known about the crew, including one Robert Bylot who was of invincible strength and who would contribute to other historic trips, William Wilson the boatswain, Edward Wilson the surgeon, Thomas Wydowse the mathematician, one strong young friend of Hudson's named Henry Greene (who embarked without knowledge of the owners), John Williams the gunner, and another member named Abacuk Pricket. These and others would accompany Hudson on a trip which would determine the fate of his life.

Death
The third trip put Hudson's name in the modern-day Canadian market. Going through the strait connecting the Atlantic and the Arctic that bears his name, Hudson then ended up in the bay known today as Hudson's Bay and at this point, knew he was going nowhere. They were in a part of it known as James Bay.

Hudson decided to turn back on June 12, 1611, but at this point, he did not have much reserve supply left. The crew began plotting against him and Juet was one of their leaders. Greene and William Wilson came up with a plan to desert the captain and the sick sailors so they could make it alive to England. The mutiny was non-violent, thanks to Prickett who convinced Greene to swear that he "...would do no man no harm, and what he did was for the good of the voyage, and for nothing else..." (Hunter). On June 24, 1611, Henry and John Hudson, along with five sick sailors and one faithful sailor named Staffe, were kicked out of the ship on a shallop. Although some sailors immediately regretted their actions, their new leaders ignored their pleas and began their trips to England. All three leaders would die during their trip back to England, and "Four of the 9 survivors were tried for murder..."(Marsh). 

What became of the deserted men is unknown. There may have been attempts to search for them in the following years, largely unsuccessful. There are many myths, speculations and discoveries which seem to conclude that the shallop may have at least made it to the shore and that John Hudson could have been the last man alive. But these are largely unproven mysteries. Most of the details of the voyage would be recounted back in England by Pricket.

Legacy

Despite his failed leadership and journeys, Hudson is a good example of always trying and not giving up. In his first two voyages, he showed dedication to discovering a passage to Asia, which, apparently, would remain his life goal. It seems like he desired to carry on the great project of John Davis, if the two ever sailed together. He was very gifted, but he was also a poor judge, as seen with his crew and the type of men he kept on bringing with him, like Juet. 

Hudson's name remains largely in Canadian society due to the Hudson's Bay Company. Founded in 1670, 59 years after the discovery of the Bay, the company was the oldest in North America, dedicated to the fur trade on Canadian soil. It is today a major Canadian department store, also operating in the Netherlands.



Sources

Book
Trudel, Marcel. The Beginnings of New France. Translated by Patricia Claxton, Toronto, McClelland and Stewart Limited, 1973.

Picture
Last voyage of Henry Hudson (1570-1611), who died in 1611 during journey in search of Northwest Passage, oil on canvas by John Collier (1850-1934), 1881, Canada, 17th century. Photograph. Britannica ImageQuest, Encyclopædia Britannica, 25 May 2016. 
quest.eb.com/search/126_163602/1/126_163602/cite. Accessed 27 Dec 2018.

Web
Chadwick, Ian. "Henry Hudson: The aftermath of Hudson's Voyages and Related Notes 1611-on." Chadwick's Web, 1996-2006, http://www.ianchadwick.com/hudson/hudson_05.htm . Accessed December 27, 2018.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Accessed December 27, 2018. 

''Henry Hudson." The Mariners' Museum and Park, 2018, ttps://exploration.marinersmuseum.org/subject/henry-hudson/ . Accessed December 27, 2018. 

"Henry Hudson, Explorer and Adventurer." 

"Hudson's Bay Company Beginnings." Curio.ca, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 2001, https://www.cbc.ca/history/EPCONTENTSE1EP6CH1PA5LE.html . Accessed December 27, 2018. 

Hunter, Douglas. "The Hudson Mutiny." Douglas Hunter, https://dwhauthor.wordpress.com/2018/02/20/the-hudson-mutiny/ . Accessed December 27, 2018. 

Marsh, James H. "Henry Hudson". The Canadian Encyclopedia, 30 November 2018, Historica Canada, https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/henry-hudson. Accessed 27 December 2018.

Neatby, L.H. "Hudson, Henry." Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 1, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 1966 (revised in 2013), http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/hudson_henry_1E.html . Accessed December 27, 2018.