Peter the Apostle

St. Peter

By: Anthony Lombardi

Date: March 31, 2019
Updated January 9, 2019

Full name: Simon/Simeon (renamed Peter by Jesus Christ)

Duration of life: Unknown-55, 64 or 67 CE

Nationality: Roman Citizen, Galilean

Trade: Fisherman, preacher

Achievements/Reputation: Apostle of Jesus Christ, founder and first Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, Christian martyr

Birth and Early Life

Like most of the apostles of Jesus Christ, the early life of Simon Peter is shrouded in mystery. Born in Bethsaida, a town near the Sea of Galilee, Simon spent most of his early life as a fisherman and following the Jewish heritage of his countrymen, the Galileans. His father was a man named Jonas and his brother was the future apostle Andrew.

Later on, Simon and Andrew relocated to Capernaum and continued fishing with fellow future apostles James and John, sons of Zebedee. Simon was married, as evidence in the Gospel of St. Matthew proves, as well as St. Paul in his first letter to the Corinthians. Candida Moss, writing for The Daily Beast, makes reference to a 2nd Century document which may lead to conclude that Simon may have had a daughter.

Life:

Besides being a fisherman, Simon may have been a bit of an intellectual. Along with Andrew, he began following a preacher known as John the Baptist, who then directed them to following Jesus Christ, along with ten other men. 

Christ soon renamed Simon and gave him some type of authority over the apostles; "And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not prevail against it." (Matthew 15: 17-18) Daniel William O'Connor says that this authority was also recognized by the broader group of Christ's followers, as well as outsiders. Of course, Christ did not mean the institutional organization currently based in Rome, but it was a reference to the community of people around him, mostly Jews. Peter was present in many of the key moments in the life of Christ, and, because of this, was one of the closer apostles. This was a fit position for Peter, as he exercised his position very well, as he was very enthusiastic, faithful and loving with his master. However, as the New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia claims, he lacked understanding in what exactly Christ's mission was about, and who exactly Jesus was. Sure, he knew Christ was the Messiah, but was not that humble, and claimed that he would never abandon his master, which he did when Jesus was arrested. This did not break his relationship with Christ, and it continued even after his master's departure.

Everything was now up to Peter and he knew it. He preceded over several of the important decisions the apostles had to deal with as they continued what Christ had left them with: that ''...repentance and forgiveness of sins is to be proclaimed in all nations, beginning from Jerusalem." (Luke 24: 47) Even with the small community under attack from the Jews, who regarded them as a separate sect, Peter managed to keep it going, and by the time he began missionary work, it was going pretty well. He journeyed to Lydda, Joppe (Jaffa) and Caesarea, where he welcomed the first "Gentile", a Roman centurion named Cornelius, into the community. After being arrested and miraculously freed in Jerusalem, he traveled into the East, in places such as Asia Minor. He established the church in several major cities such as Antioch. He had to touch base with the community in Jerusalem to keep them updated on what was going on, and well as make sure the people of Jewish and Gentile backgrounds got along, which is why he held the Council of Jerusalem with St. Paul between 49 and 50 CE.

Death

Little is known about what actually happened to Peter following the Council of Jerusalem. However, he was certainly in Rome during the last years of his life, where he wrote his epistles: the first one: to comfort some communities in the East and the second one was a perceived accompaniment to the Epistle of Jude, according to Fr. John Laux.

Tradition says he was martyred during the persecutions of Nero by being crucified upside down, and according to the Vatican City State, buried in Caligula's Circus in 64 CE, while other sources claim 67 CE. Since then, the actual location of his remains is shrouded in mystery, although they are references in which ancient texts point to the Vatican being built on their site. According to Nicola Denzey Lewis, bones found in the middle of the 20th Century under that site may be his. However, this concept has been challenged, such as Michael D. Goulder, who claims that Peter died in 55 C.E. in Jerusalem and that the whole Rome situation was a legend.

Legacy
Due to Peter's final residence in Rome, the Primacy of the Roman Pontiff, the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church, gravitates around the Vatican City in the ancient capital. Even though Peter founded other Churches, according to Fr. Laux, none of them dared to challenge the Roman claim to the pope's seat. A letter to Christians in Corinth by St. Clement of Rome, third successor of St. Peter, confirms that. In it, he claimed divine leadership, as Peter had received the power from Jesus Christ, who Catholics believe is the son of God.

In the Roman Catholic Church, according to O'Connor, St. Peter is celebrated on five days, all associated with St. Paul. 
These feasts are: 
January 18: Chair of St. Peter (Rome) 
February 22: Chair of St. Peter (Antioch)
June 29: Feast of Sts: Peter and Paul
August 1: St. Peter in Chains
November 18: Dedications of the Basilicas of Peter and Paul

St. Peter is chiefly remembered as the apostle to the Jews, who dealt mostly with the people of Jewish origin and tradition in the new Christian community. He supported the upholding of the Jewish law among the early believers in Jerusalem, and may have moved the main seat of administration from Jerusalem to Rome, which remains the seat of his successor: the Pope.

Sources

Books
Holy Bible. New Revised Standard Version, Bible Society Resources Lmt, 2012.

Laux, Fr. John. Introduction to the Bible. 1932. TAN Books, 1990.
---. Catholic Apologetics: God, Christianity and the Church. 1934. TAN Books, 1990.

Picture
St Peter. Illustration. Britannica ImageQuest, Encyclopædia Britannica, 6 Dec 2017. 
quest.eb.com/search/108_2284593/1/108_2284593/cite. Accessed 23 Mar 2019.

Web
"First Epistle of Peter." New World Encyclopedia, April 11,  2017, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/First_Epistle_of_Peter . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

Goulder, Michael D. "Did Peter Ever Go to Rome?" Scottish Journal of Theology, vol. 57, no. 4, 2004, pp. 377-396. ProQuest, https://proquest-crc.proxy.ccsr.qc.ca/docview/222365381?accountid=44391.

"History." Vatican City State, 2007-14, http://www.vaticanstate.va/content/vaticanstate/en/monumenti/basilica-di-s-pietro/storia.paginate.1.html# . Accessed March 31, 2019.

Lewis, Nicola Denzey. "The Apostle Peter in Rome." Biblical Archeology Society, April 20, 2018, https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/people-in-the-bible/the-apostle-peter-in-rome/ . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

Lombardi, Anthony. "Andrew the Apostle." Interistory, March 31, 2019, https://interistory.blogspot.com/search?q=Andrew+the+Apostle . Accessed March 31, 2019.

Moss, Candida. "The Greatest Myths about the Apostles." The Daily Beast, May 07, 2017. ProQuest, https://proquest-crc.proxy.ccsr.qc.ca/docview/1895751974?accountid=44391.

O'Connor, Daniel William. "Saint Peter the Apostle." Encyclopaedia Britannica, February 27, 2019, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Peter-the-Apostle . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

"Peter: 1st Pope of the Catholic Church." The Holy See, http://w2.vatican.va/content/vatican/en/holy-father/san-pietro.html . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

"Saint Feast Days in August." Catholic Online, https://www.catholic.org/saints/f_day/aug.php . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

"St. Peter, Prince of the Apostles." New Advent: Catholic Encyclopedia, 2017, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11744a.htm . Accessed March 31, 2019. 

John By

                                     
                    Lieutenant-Colonel John By supervising the 
                    construction of the Rideau Canal 


By: Anthony Lombardi
Date: March 4th, 2019
Updated January 9, 2020


Full name: John By

Duration of life: 1779/83-February 1st, 1836

Nationality: British

Trade: Second lieutenant, lieutenant, second captain, first captain Brevet major, lieutenant colonel, member of the Royal Artillery, Royal Engineers and the Board of Ordinance.

Achievements/Reputation: undertook major fortification and engineering projects in Britain and Canada. Founder of Canada's future capital: Ottawa.

Birth and Early Life
The birth date of this important character in Canadian history is disputed. John By was born anywhere between 1779 and 1783 in Lambeth, England. He attended the Royal Military Academy in Woolwich, graduating from there on August 1, 1799.

Life
By married Elizabeth Johnson Baines in 1801. After serving in Woolwich and Plymouth, he was stationed for the first time in Canada in 1802. He worked on the small locks on the St. Lawrence River and on the fortifications of Quebec City. He did well, and was promoted as second captain. 

Later on, he was called to serve in Portugal in 1811 in the Peninsular War, and returned to England in 1812, where he was appointed Brevet Major. There, he accomplished some more engineering feats: he designed and had built an arms factory in London in 1814. Unfortunately, his wife also died that year, without having any children. By did not wait too long, and was married again in 1818 to Esther March, who bore at least two daughters. In 1821, By retired and stayed in London, being appointed Lieutenant-Colonel in 1824. 

The main feat of By's life was yet to be accomplished. In order to strengthen the border between Canada and the hostile United States, he was appointed Commanding Engineer of the Rideau Canal project, probably due to his experience in engineering and the fact that he had worked in Canada previously. This was in 1826, so retirement did not last very long. 

As he constructed the canal, a small community was being created for the workers in the project. It was called Bytown, and it was from here that all the affairs for the canal were conducted. According to John H. Taylor, By himself was in charge of the town and also owned some land south of the settlement that he purchased for 1,200 GBP (2,110.42 CAD), which was undeveloped for many years.

During the construction of the canal, By encountered many problems, including certain costs for the construction, contract extensions, and clashes with other people on the Board of Ordinance, his army colleagues also involved in engineering. The circulation of information was not easy, as orders took a while to arrive from London to the construction site. Furthermore, as of 1830, the Parliament was reluctant to his project and his reputation was getting worst. However, the canal was done and By traveled on it in 1832. According to Ken W. Watson, By spent approximately 803,774 GBP (1,413,701.39 CAD).

Unfortunately, at around the same time, By was called back to England on accusations of overspending, according to Robert F. Legget. It was there that his military career ended, and he never got a public hearing with the Parliament. He tried getting his name cleared in public and even demand recognition for having achieved a very big colonial engineering project, in vain.

Death
By suffered a stroke in October 1834, but underwent a more severe one two years later. On February 1st, 1836, John By passed away in Frant, England, without any public recognition. 

Legacy
Unfortunately, By's name and memory quickly disappeared in England as he had no one else to continue fighting for his name. His last surviving descendants, his granddaughters, died when they were still young.

However, the Rideau Canal did come in handy for military reasons, such as the 1838 Battle of the Windmill. And, in 1855, the name of the small town he founded was changed to Ottawa. Little would By have known that his Bytown (without the name obviously) would become the capital of the Dominion of Canada in 1887. It remains Canada's capital. 

Watson notes that it wasn't until the 20th Century that prominent historians such as Legget began examining John By's image, and made him a celebrated figure of Canadian history. Research has concluded that the accusations of overspending were technically wrong, and did not go against Parliament orders.   


Sources

Book
Taylor, John H. Ottawa: An Illustrated History. James Lorimier & Company Publishers and the Canadian Museum of Civilization, Toronto, 1986.

Picture
Jeffreys [sic], C.W. Heritage Ottawa, https://heritageottawa.org/colonel-day . Accessed March 4th, 2019.

Web
Legget, Robert F. "By, John." Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 7, University of Toronto and Université Laval, 1988, http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/by_john_7E.html . Accessed March 4th, 2019

Legget, Robert F. "John By." The Canadian Encyclopedia, June 12, 2008, edited March 4th, 2015, https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/john-by . Accessed March 4th, 2019. 

Watson, Ken W. "Bye By." Rideau Canal World Heritage Site, http://www.rideau-info.com/canal/tales/bye-by.html . Accessed March 4th, 2019.

Xe Currency Converter. https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/ . Accessed March 4th, 2019.